Foundations of empire
Motives of imperialism
Modern imperialism
Refers to domination of industrialized countries over subject lands
Domination achieved through trade, investment, and business activities
Two types of modern colonialism
Colonies ruled and populated by migrants
Colonies controlled by imperial powers without significant settlement
Economic motives of imperialism
European merchants and entrepreneurs made personal fortunes
Overseas expansion for raw materials: rubber, tin, copper, petroleum
Colonies were potential markets for industrial products
Political motives
Strategic purpose: harbors and supply stations for industrial nations
Overseas expansion used to defuse internal tensions
Cultural justifications of imperialism
Christian missionaries sought converts in Africa and Asia
"Civilizing mission" or "white man's burden" was a justification for expansion
Tools of empire
Transportation technologies supported imperialism
Steam-powered gunboats reached inland waters of Africa and Asia
Railroads organized local economies to serve imperial power
Western military technologies increasingly powerful
Firearms: from muskets to rifles to machines guns
In Battle of Omdurman 1898, British troops killed eleven thousand Sudanese in five hours
Communication technologies linked imperial lands with colonies
Oceangoing steamships cut travel time from Britain to India from years to weeks
Telegraph invented in 1830s, global reach by 1900
European imperialism
The British empire in India
Company rule under the English East India Company
EIC took advantage of Mughal decline in India, began conquest of India in 1750s
Built trading cities and forts at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay
Ruled domains with small British force and Indian troops called sepoys
Sepoy mutiny, 1857: attacks on British civilians led to swift British reprisals
British imperial rule replaced the EIC, 1858
British viceroy and high-level British civil service ruled India
British officials appointed a viceroy and formulated all domestic and foreign policy
Indians held low-level bureaucratic positions
Economic restructuring of India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
Introduction of commercial crops: tea in Ceylon, also coffee and opium
Built railroads and telegraph lines, new canals, harbors, and irrigation methods
British rule did not interfere with Indian culture or Hindu religion
Established English-style schools for Indian elites
Outlawed Indian customs considered offensive, such as the sati
Imperialism in central Asia and southeast Asia
"The Great Game" refers to competition between Britain and Russia in central Asia
By 1860s Russian expansion reached northern frontiers of British India
Russian and British explorers mapped, scouted, but never colonized Afghanistan
Russian dominance of central Asia lasted until 1991
Dutch East India Company held tight control of Indonesia (Dutch East India)
British colonies in southeast Asia
Established colonial authority in Burma, 1880s
Port of Singapore founded 1824; was base for conquest of Malaya, 1870s
French Indochina created, 1859-1893
Consisted of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos--former tribute states of Qing dynasty
French encouraged conversion to Christianity, established western-style schools
Kingdom of Siam (Thailand) left in place as buffer between Burma and Indochina
The scramble for Africa
Between 1875 and 1900, European powers seized almost the entire continent
Early explorers charted the waters, gathered information on resources
Missionaries like David Livingstone set up mission posts
Henry Stanley sent by Leopold II of Belgium to create colony in Congo, 1870s
To protect their investments and Suez Canal, Britain occupied Egypt, 1882
South Africa settled first by Dutch farmers (Afrikaners) in seventeenth century
By 1800 was a European settler colony with enslaved black African population
British seized Cape Colony in early nineteenth century, abolished slavery in 1833
British-Dutch tensions led to Great Trek of Afrikaners inland to claim new lands
Mid-nineteenth century, they established Orange Free State in 1854, Transvaal in 1860
Discovery of gold and diamonds in Afrikaner lands; influx of British settlers
Boer War, 1899-1902: British defeated Afrikaners, Union of South Africa
The Berlin Conference, 1884-1885
European powers set rules for carving Africa into colonies
Occupation, supported by European armies, established colonial rule in Africa
By 1900 all of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was controlled by European powers
Colonial rule challenging and expensive
"Concessionary companies": granted considerable authority to private companies
empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads
made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian Congo
unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule
Direct rule: replacing local rulers with Europeans--French model
justified by "civilizing mission"
hard to find enough European personnel
Indirect rule: control over subjects through local institutions--British model
worked best in African societies that were highly organized
assumed firm tribal boundaries where often none existed
European imperialism in the Pacific
Settler colonies in the Pacific
1770, Captain James Cook reached Australia, reported it suitable for settlement
1788, one thousand settlers established colony of New South Wales
1851, gold discovered; surge of European migration to Australia
Fertile soil and timber of New Zealand attracted European settlers
Europeans diseases dramatically reduced aboriginal populations
Large settler societies forced indigenous peoples onto marginal lands
Imperialists in paradise: delayed colonization of Pacific Islands until late nineteenth century
Early visitors to the Pacific were mostly whalers, merchants, some missionaries
Late nineteenth century, European states sought coaling stations and naval ports
By 1900, all islands but Tonga claimed by France, Britain, Germany and United States.
Island plantations produced sugarcane, copra, guano
The emergence of new imperial powers
U.S. imperialism in Latin America and the Pacific
The Monroe Doctrine, 1823: proclamation by U.S. president James Monroe
Opposed European imperialism in the Americas; justified U.S. intervention
United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867
Hawaii became a protectorate in 1875, formally annexed in 1898
The Spanish-American War (1898-99)
United States defeated Spain and took over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Philippines
United States backed Filipino revolt against Spain, purchased and took over the colony
1902-1904, bitter civil war killed two hundred thousand Filipinos, ended in U.S. victory
The Panama Canal, 1903-1914
Colombian government refused U.S. request to build canal at Panama isthmus
United States helped rebels establish the state of Panama for the right to build a canal
Completed in 1914; gave United States access to Atlantic and Pacific
Imperial Japan
Japanese resented unequal treaties of 1860s, resolved to become imperial power
Early Japanese expansion in nearby islands
1870s, to the north: Hokkaido, Kurile islands
By 1879, to the south: Okinawa and Ryukyu Islands
Meiji government bought British warships, built up navy, established military academies
1876, imposed unequal treaties on Korea at gunpoint
Made plans to invade China
The Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)
Rebellion in Korea: Chinese army sent to restore order, reassert authority
Meiji leaders declared war against China, demolished Chinese fleet
China forced to cede Korea, Taiwan, Pescadores Islands, Liaodong peninsula
The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
Russia also had territorial ambitions in Liaodong peninsula, Korea, Manchuria
Japanese navy destroyed local Russian forces; Baltic fleet sent as reinforcements
Japan now a major imperial power
Legacies of imperialism
Empire and economy: two patterns of changes
Colonial rule transformed traditional production of crops and commodities
Indian cotton grown to serve British textile industry
Inexpensive imported textiles undermined Indian production
New crops transformed landscape and society
Rain forests of Ceylon converted to tea plantations
Ceylonese women recruited to harvest tea
Rubber plantations transformed Malaya and Sumatra
Labor migrations
European migration
Fifty million Europeans migrated 1800-1914, over half to the United States
Other settler colonies in Canada, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
Most European migrants became cultivators, herders, or skilled laborers
Indentured labor migration more typical from Asia, Africa, and Pacific islands
About 2.5 million indentured laborers globally during 1820-1914
Indentured migrants tended to work on tropical and subtropical plantations
Example: Indian laborers to Pacific island and Caribbean plantations
Japanese laborers to Hawaiian sugar plantations
Large-scale migrations reflected global influence of imperialism
Empire and society
Colonial conflict not uncommon in nineteenth century
In India, numerous insurrections, such as the sepoy rebellion of 1857
1905, Maji Maji rebellion in east Africa thought traditional magic would defeat the Germans
Resistance included boycotts, political parties, anticolonial publications
Conflict among different groups united under colonial rule, for example, Hawaii
"Scientific racism" popular in nineteenth century
Race became the measure of human potential; Europeans considered superior
Gobineau divided humanity into four main racial groups, each with peculiar traits
Social Darwinism: "survival of fittest" used to justify European domination
Colonial experience only reinforced popular racism
Assumed moral superiority of Europeans
Racist views in U.S. treatment of Filipinos, Japanese treatment of Koreans
Nationalism and anticolonial movements
Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), "father of modern India"
Sought an Indian society based on European science and traditional Hinduism
Used press to mobilize educated Hindus and advance reform
The Indian National Congress, founded 1885
Educated Indians met, with British approval, to discuss public affairs
Congress aired grievances about colonial rule, sought Indian self-rule
1906, All-India Muslim League formed to advance interests of Indian Muslims
Limited reform, 1909; wealthy Indians could elect representatives to local councils
Indian nationalism a powerful movement, achieved independence in 1947
India served as a model for anticolonial campaigns in other lands
The global economy
Economic globalization
Global economy evident after collapse of communism
Expanding trade, foreign investments, privatization of industry
Free trade: free of state-imposed restrictions
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
Formed in 1947 as vehicle to promote free trade
In 1994, 123 GATT members created Word Trade Organization (WTO)
Dramatic growth in world trade, 1966-1990
Global corporations symbols of the new economy
Multinational businesses operate apart from laws and restrictions of any one nation
Seek cheapest labor and resources; prefer lax environmental laws
Pay less in taxes in developed world than formerly
Economic growth in Asia
Japan's "economic miracle"
Postwar Japan had few resources, no overseas empire
Benefited from U.S. aid, investments, and protection
Japan pursued export-oriented growth supported by low wages
Began with labor-intensive exports, textiles, iron, and steel
Reinvested profits in capital-intensive and technology-intensive production
Rapid growth, 1960s-1980s; suffered recession in 1990s
The Little Tigers: Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan
Followed Japanese model of export-driven industry; rapid growth in 1980s
By 1990s highly competitive; joined by Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia
The rise of China since the death of Mao Zedong
Late 1970s opened China to foreign investment and technology
Gradual shift from planned communist economy to market economy
Offered vast, cheap labor and huge domestic markets
China joined WTO in 2001
Perils of the new economy: vulnerable to global forces
Investors withdrew support from Thailand in 1997
Ripple effect: contraction of other Asian economies
Trading blocs
The European Union
Begun in 1957 with six nations, now includes fifteen
A common market, free trade, free travel within the Union
Eleven members adopted a common currency, the Euro, in 1999
Expectations of a European Political Union eventually
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Cartel established in 1960 to raise global oil prices
After Arab-Israeli war of 1973, OPEC placed embargo on oil to United States, Israel's ally
Price of oil quadrupled from 1973 to 1975, triggered global recession
Overproduction and dissension among members diminished influence, 1990s
Regional trade associations formed to establish free-trade zones for member states
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967, five members
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1993: United States, Canada, Mexico
Critics of globalization
To supporters, global economy efficient, best path to global prosperity
To critics, widens gap between rich and poor, destroys environment, threatens local and traditional crafts and economies
Cross-cultural exchanges and global communication
Global Barbie
Western consumerism becoming a global phenomenon
Sara versus Barbie in Iran
Barbie seen as a threat to Islamic values, symbol of cultural imperialism
Iranian dolls, Sara and her brother Dara (an Islamic cleric), are modest alternatives
Barbie in Japan
Image of Barbie unsettling, Mattel created a younger doll for Japanese market
Whereas Iranians reject image of Barbie, Japanese adjust Barbie to their aesthetic
Consumption and cultural interaction
Global culture of consumption
Satisfies wants and desires rather than needs or necessities
Homogenization of global culture: blue jeans, Coca-Cola, McDonalds
Western icons often replace local businesses and indigenous cultures
Brand names also identify local products, for example, Swiss Rolex, Perrier, Armani
Pan-American culture competes with United States
Eva Pe_on (Evita) has become a pop icon in Argentina and beyond
Latin American societies blended foreign and indigenous cultural practices
The age of access
Globalization minimizes social, economic, and political isolation
Preeminence of English language
Critics: mass media become a vehicle of cultural imperialism
Internet is an information colony, with English hegemony
China attempts a firewall to control Internet information
Adaptations of technology in authoritarian states
Zaire television showed dictator Mobutu Sese Seko walking on clouds
Vietnam and Iraq limit access to foreign servers on Internet
Global problems
Population pressures and environmental degradation
Dramatic population increases in twentieth century
Population increased from 500 million in 1650 to 2.5 billion in 1950
Asia and Africa experienced population explosion after WWII
5.5 billion people in 1994; perhaps 11.6 billion people in 2200
So far, food production has kept pace with population growth
Fertility rates have been falling for past twenty years
The planet's carrying capacity: how many people can the earth support?
Scientists and citizens concerned about physical limits of the earth
Club of Rome issued "The Limits to Growth" in 1972
Dire predictions not borne by facts: prices have fallen, food has increased
Environmental impact
Urbanization and agricultural expansion threaten biodiversity
Gas emissions, coal burning contribute to global warming
In 1997 at Kyoto, 159 states met to cut carbon dioxide emissions
Population control: a highly politicized issue
Some developing nations charge racism when urged to limit population
UN agencies have aided many countries with family-planning programs
China's one-child policy has significantly reduced growth rate
Other cultures still favor larger families, for example, India
Economic inequities and labor servitude
Causes of poverty
Inequities in resources and income separate rich and poor societies
Attendant problems: malnutrition, environmental degradation
Legacy of colonialism: economic dependence
Labor servitude increasing
Slavery abolished worldwide by 1960s
Millions still forced into bonded labor
Child-labor servitude common in south and southeast Asia
Trafficking of persons across international boundaries widespread
Victims, mostly girls and women, lured with promises of work
Often in sex industry; hugely profitable though criminal
Global diseases
Many epidemics now under control
Last major pandemic (1918-1919): flu epidemic that killed twenty to forty million
Smallpox and diptheria eradicated
HIV/AIDS identified in 1981 in San Francisco
In 2000, 36.1 million people living with HIV/AIDS worldwide, 21.8 million in Africa
Kills adults in prime; many children in Africa orphaned
Threatens social and economic basis of African societies
Many cannot afford treatment
Global terrorism
The weapon of those out of power, of anticolonial and revolutionary movements
Difficult to define terrorism
Deliberate violence against civilians to advance political or ideological cause
Rarely successful; often discredits potentially worthy causes
11 September 2001 focused international attention on terrorism
Coordinated attack on World Trade Tower and Pentagon
Source identified as Islamic militant Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda network
Angered by U.S. presence in Saudi Arabia; proclaimed jihad, holy war
Islamic State of Afghanistan was established 1996 by Taliban
Imposed strict Islamic law: regulated dress, entertainment, media
Women barred from education, work, health services
November 2001, U.S. forces invaded Afghanistan, drove out Taliban, al-Qaeda
Coping with global problems: international organizations
Many global problems cannot be solved by national governments
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
Red Cross, an international humanitarian agency, founded 1964
Greenpeace, an environmental organization, founded in 1970
The United Nations, founded 1945 "to maintain international peace and security"
Not successful at preventing wars, for example, Iran-Iraq war
Cannot legislate, but has influence in international community
More successful in health and educational goals: eradication of smallpox, decrease in child mortality, increase in female literacy
Human rights: an ancient concept, gaining wider acceptance
Nuremberg Trials of Nazis established concept of "crimes against humanity"
UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights: forbids slavery, torture, discrimination
NGOs such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch
Crossing boundaries
Women's traditions and feminist challenges
Feminism and equal rights
Status of women changed dramatically after WWII in industrialized states
Women demanded full equality with men, access to education and employment
Birth control enables women to control their bodies and avoid "biology destiny"
U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964 forbids discrimination on basis of race or sex
Gender equality in China
Communist states often improved women's legal status
Despite legal reforms, China's women have not yet gained true equality
One-child policy encourages infanticide or abandonment of baby girls
Domesticity and abuse restricting rights of women in developing world
Women in Arab and Muslim societies twice as likely as men to be illiterate
Most Indian women illiterate (75 perecent in 1980s) and confined at home
"Dowry deaths" common in India; burning of wives in Pakistan
Women leaders in south Asia
Effective political leaders: Indira Gandhi (India) and Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan)
Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga became president of Sri Lanka, 1994
Democratic activist Aung Sang Suu Kyi received Nobel Peace Prize in 1991 when under house arrest in Myanmar
UN launched a Decade for Women program in 1975
Migration
Internal migration: tremendous flow from rural to urban settings
Part of process of industrialization; in western societies 75 percent of population is urban
Urbanization a difficult transition for rural people
Crowded in slums (barrios) at the edge of cities; strain urban services
External migration: fleeing war, persecution, seeking opportunities
Thirteen million "guest workers" migrated to western Europe since 1960
Ten million migrants (mostly Mexican) migrated to United States since 1960
In oil-producing countries, foreigners make up half of working population
About 130 million people currently live outside their countries of citizenship
Migrant communities within host societies
Migrants enrich societies in many ways, but also spark hostility and conflict
Fears that migrants will undermine national identity, compete for jobs
Anti-immigrant movements (xenophobia) lead to violence and racial tension
Cross-cultural travelers
Mass tourism possible with more leisure and faster travel
First travel agencies: Thomas Cook and Karl Baedeker in nineteenth century
In 1800s, tourism fashionable for rich Europeans; adopted by working people later
By the twentieth century, leisure travel another form of consumption
After WWII, packaged tours took millions of tourists across the world
Effects of mass tourism
Now travel and tourism is the largest single industry on the planet
Low-paying jobs; profits go mostly to developed world
Tourism exposes cultural variations and diversity of local traditions
Tourism leads to revival and transformation of indigenous cultural traditions
Independence in Asia
India's "vivisection": partitioned independence
Indian self-rule
British finally willing to consider independence after WWII
Muslim separatism grew; feared domination by Hindus
Muslim League called a Day of Direct Action in 1946; rioting left six thousand dead
Partition of India and ensuing violence
Gandhi condemned division of India as a "vivisection"
Independent India, 1947, divided into Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India
Ten million refugees moved either to India or Pakistan; one million died in migration
Gandhi assassinated by a Hindu extremist, 30 January 1948
Conflicts between India and Pakistan
1947, fought over province of Kashmir; Pakistan lost
Pakistan allied with United States; India accepted aid from both superpowers
India and Pakistan stayed in British Commonwealth; English was official language
Nonalignment emerged as attractive alternative to a cold war alliance
Indian prime minister Nehru favored policy of nonalignment, the "third path"
At Bandung Conference in Indonesia, 1955, twenty-nine nonaligned nations met
Movement lacked unity; many members sought aid from United States or USSR
Nationalist struggles in Vietnam
Fighting the French
Japan's invasion ended French rule; Ho Chi Minh declared independence
France reasserted colonial rule, recaptured Saigon and south Vietnam, 1945
Retook north by bombing Hanoi and Haiphong; killed at least ten thousand civilians
Ho and followers (Viet Minh) conducted guerrilla warfare from the countryside
Aided by Communist China, Viet Minh defeated the French in 1954
Geneva Conference and partial independence, 1954
Vietnam temporarily divided, north and south, at 17th parallel
South Vietnam's leaders delayed elections, feared communist victory
United States supported first the French, then the unpopular government of South Vietnam
North Vietnam received assistance from USSR and China
Cold war stalemate
Nationalist-communist (Viet Cong) attacks on government of South Vietnam
President Johnson launched bombing campaign, sent ground troops in 1965
U.S. troops were trapped in a quagmire; dragged on until 1973
Arab national states and the problem of Palestine
Arab states, except Palestine, gained independence after World War II
Zionist dream of a Jewish state in Palestine
Zionism affirmed by Balfour Declaration, 1917, and Paris peace talks
Britain supported Zionist effort, but limited Jewish migrants to Palestine
Conflicts between Arab Palestinians and Jewish settlers, 1920s and 1930s
Arab Palestinians resisted both British rule and Jewish settlement violently
Increased Jewish migration to escape Nazis; armed for self-protection
Independent Arab states opposed a Jewish state
Creation of Israel
Unable to resolve conflict, Britain turned Palestine question over to UN, 1947
UN proposed dividing into two states, Palestine and Israel; Arabs opposed
1947, British withdrew, civil war broke out, Jews proclaimed the state of Israel
Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq declared war on Israel
Israel achieved victory in 1949; claimed territories larger than what was granted by UN plan
Egypt and Arab nationalism
Military leaders under Gamal A. Nasser seized power in 1952
Nasser became prime minister, a leader of pan-Arab nationalism
Egypt neutral in cold war, accepted aid from both powers
Nasser dedicated to ending imperialism and destroying state of Israel
Suez crisis, 1956, greatly enhanced Nasser's prestige
Canal controlled by Britain; Nasser nationalized it to build Egypt's economy
Attacked by British, French, and Israeli forces, which retook canal
Both superpowers condemned military action, forced them to withdraw
Suez crisis divided United States and its allies in western Europe
Decolonization in Africa
Forcing the French out of north Africa
France in Africa
1950s and 1960s, French granted independence to all its African colonies except Algeria
Two million French settlers in Algeria
Revolt of May 1954 was repressed by French; eight thousand Algerian Muslims died
War in Algeria, 1954-1962
Algerian nationalists pursued guerrilla warfare against French rule
By 1958, a half-million French soldiers were committed to the conflict
Atrocities on both sides; heavy civilian casualties; Algerian independence, 1962
Revolutionary writer Franz Fanon urged violence as weapon against colonial racism
Black African nationalism and independence
Growth of African nationalism
Began as grassroots protest against European imperialism
African nationalism celebrated Negritude (blackness), African roots
Obstacles to African independence
Imperial powers assumed Africans were not ready for self-government
White settlers opposed black independence
Anticommunist fears justified interference in African politics
Economic and political instability often hampered postindependent Africa
Freedom and conflict in sub-Sahara Africa
Ghana (Gold Coast) first to gain independence, 1957
Kwame Nkrumah, nationalist leader, jailed and censored for political actions
Eventually released, Nkrumah became Ghana's first president, 1957
Side-by-side posters presented Queen Elizabeth and Nkrumah as equals, 1961
Anticolonial rebellion in Kenya
Violent clashes between native Kikuyu (Mau Mau) and European settlers after 1947
1930s and 1940s, Kikuyu pushed off farm lands, reduced to wage slaves
Labeling Mau Mau as communist subversives, Britain gained U.S. support
Kikuyu uprising crushed by superior arms in 1955; twelve thousand Africans killed
Political parties legalized, 1959; Kenya gained independence, 1963
After independence: long-term struggles in the postcolonial era
Communism and democracy in Asia
Mao reunified China under communism
Great Leap Forward (1958--1961) was an effort to catch up with industrial nations
All land collectivized; farming and industry became communal
Agricultural disaster; great famine followed, 1959--1962
Great proletarian cultural revolution, 1966--1976
To root out "revisionism," revitalize the revolutionary fervor
Millions subjected to humiliation, persecution, and death
Educated elites targeted; setback for Chinese education and science
Died out after Mao's death in 1976
Deng's revolution
Deng Xiaoping regained power in 1981; opened China to foreign influence
Welcomed economic, market reforms; remained politically authoritarian
Crushed pro-democracy student demonstration in Tiananmen Square, 1989
Hong Kong reverted to China in 1997: how to absorb democratic city into China?
Stable Indian democracy was exception to Asian pattern of authoritarian rule
Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, was prime minister of India, 1966-1977, 1980-1984
"Green revolution" dramatically increased agricultural yields
Adopted harsh policy of birth control: involuntary sterilization; voted out in 1977
Reelected in 1980, but faced strong opposition from religious and ethnic groups
Crushed uprising of Sikhs; was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards in 1984
Her son Rajiv Gandhi was elected in 1985, but was assassinated in 1991
Islamic resurgence in southwest Asia and north Africa
Muslim revival and Arab disunity
Cold war split Arab-Muslim world; pan-Arab unity did not materialize
Israel became a staunch ally of United States; many Arab-Islamic states allied with USSR
Israel defeated Egypt and Syria in 1967 and in 1973
Egypt's president, Anwar Sadat, ended alliance with USSR in 1976
Sadat signed peace treaty with Israel in 1980; was assassinated, 1981
Palestine Liberation Organization leader Yasser Arafat and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin signed peace treaties in 1993-1995
Islamism: revival of Muslim traditions
Reasserting Islamic values in Muslim politics
Resentment at European and American societies
Extremists embraced jihad, or duty to defend Islam from attack; justified terrorism
The Iranian revolution, 1979
CIA helped anticommunist Shah Mohammed Pahlavi gain power, 1953
Repressive rule overthrown by Islamist followers of Ayatollah Khomeini, 1979
Khomeini attacked United States for support of the shah
Militants held sixty-nine Americans hostage for 444 days; shut down U.S. military bases
Movement encouraged other Muslims to undertake terrorist actions
Iran-Iraq war, 1980-1988
Iraqi president Saddam Hussein launched attack on Iran in 1980
War dragged on till 1988; killed one million soldiers
Next, Iraqis invaded Kuwait in 1990, inciting Gulf War, 1991
Politics and Economics in Latin America
Mexico after the revolution of 1910-1920
Liberal constitution of 1917 guaranteed land and liberty to Mexico
Subsoil assets claimed by Mexican government
Redistribution of land to peasants by government legalized
After 1930s, conservative governments dominated by Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)
Argentina: return to military rule
Leader of Latin American struggle against U.S. and European intervention
Gradual shift to free elections, but often reverted to military rulers
Militarist Juan Pe_on was elected president, 1946; immensely popular
His wife, Eva P_on, was national heroine for her service to the poor
Pe_on ousted in 1955; three decades of military dictators followed
Late 1970s, death squads conducted "dirty war" against dissidents
Guatemala: destabilized
Cold war shaped U.S. policies in Central America
Guatemalan president Arbenz nationalized land held by United Fruit Co., 1953
CIA engineered overthrow of Arbenz and armed Colonel Castillo Armas
Castillo Armas established brutal military dictatorship; was assassinated, 1957
Nicaragua: American interference
Somoza regime (1934-1980), brutal dictators but anticommunist U.S. ally
Overthrown by Marxist Sandinistas in 1980
Carter administration did not interfere, restored Panama Canal to Panama
Reagan reversed policy; supported Contras, rebels opposed to the Sandinistas
Costa Rican president negotiated end to Contra war, new coalition government
Patterns of economic dependence in Latin America
Need to reorient economies from export to internal development
Raul Prebisch, Argentine economist, crafted theory of "economic dependency"
developed nations controlled world economy at expense of undeveloped ones
developing nations needed to protect domestic industries
War and peace in sub-Saharan Africa
Aftermath of decolonization
Organization of African Unity was created in 1963 to maintain peace and promote pan-African unity
Artificial boundaries imposed by colonialism were ruled inviolable
Ghana and many other states became one-party dictatorships
Transformation of South Africa
Gained independence in 1901, but denied civil rights to black population
South African economy strong, both mining and industry; prospered during WWII
Black workers demanded political change
Apartheid: harsh legal system imposed in 1948, designed to keep races separate
87 peercent of South African land was for white residents, others classified by race
African National Congress, led by Nelson Mandela, launched campaign to protest apartheid
Severe government repression provoked international opposition after 1960
Black agitation and international sanctions brought end to apartheid in 1989
1994, under new constitution, Mandela won free election as first black president
Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire)
First prime minister, a Marxist, killed in a CIA-backed coup, 1961
Dictator Mobutu ruled from 1965 to 1997; plundered Zaire's economy
Mobutu ruled Zaire in dictatorial fashion and amassed huge personal fortune
Lawrence Kabila ousted Mobutu in 1997, changed country's name back to the Congo
Kabila killed, 2001; replaced by his son Joseph; no elections yet
Developing economies of Africa
Africa has 10 percent of world's population but less than 1 percent of industrial output
Rich in minerals, raw materials, agricultural resources
Lacking in capital, technology, foreign markets, and managerial class
Rapid population growth compounds problems
The formation of a bipolar world
The cold war in Europe
Postwar Europe divided into competing political, military, economic blocs
Western Europe U.S. allies: parliamentary governments, capitalist economies
Eastern Europe dominated by Soviet Union, communist governments
Germany divided east and west in 1949
Soviets refused to withdraw from eastern Germany after World War II
Allied sectors reunited 1947-1948, Berlin remained divided as well
Berlin blockade and airlift, 1948-1949
Soviet closed roads, trains, tried to strangle West Berlin into submission
Britain and United States kept city supplied with round-the-clock airlift
After embargo against Soviet satellites, Soviets backed down and ended blockade
The Berlin Wall, 1961
1949-1961, flood of refugees from East to West Germany, East to West Berlin
Soviet solution: a wall of barbed wire through the city fortified the border
Former Allied nations objected but did not risk a full conflict over the wall
Nuclear arms race: terrifying proliferation of nuclear weapons by both sides
NATO and Warsaw Treaty Organization amassed huge weapons stockpiles
By 1960s USSR reached military parity with United States
By 1970 both superpowers acquired MAD, "mutually assured destruction"
Confrontations in Korea and Cuba
The Korea War, 1951-1953
Korea divided at 38th parallel in 1948; U.S. ally in south, Soviet ally in north
North Korean troops crossed the 38th parallel and captured Seoul, June 1950
U.S. and UN troops pushed back North Korean troops to Chinese border
Chinese troops came in, pushed U.S. forces and their allies back in the south
Both sides agreed to a cease-fire in July 1953, again at 38th parallel
Globalization of containment
Western fears of an international communist conspiracy, which must be contained
Creation of SEATO, an Asian counterpart of NATO
The "domino theory": if one country falls to communism, others will follow
Cuba: nuclear flashpoint
Castro's revolutionary force overthrew dictator Batista in 1959
Castro seized U.S. properties, killed or exiled thousands of political opponents
United States cut off Cuban sugar imports, imposed export embargo
Castro accepted Soviet massive economic aid and arms shipments
Bay of Pigs fiasco, April 1961
CIA-sponsored invasion of Cuba failed
Diminished U.S. prestige in Latin America
Cuban missile crisis, October 1962
Soviet deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba, aimed at United States; claimed Cuban defense
Kennedy blockaded Cuba, demanded removal; two tense weeks
Khrushchev backed down; Kennedy pledged not to overthrow Castro
Cold war societies
Domestic containment
U.S. leaders held families to be best defense against communism
Women discouraged from working, should stay home and raise kids
Senator McCarthy led attack against suspected communists in United States
Increasing pressure to conform, retreat to home and family
Female liberation movement a reaction to postwar domesticity
Working women unhappy with new cult of domesticity
Writers Simone de Beauvoir and Betty Friedan reflected women's dissatisfaction
Some feminists used Marxist language, argued for "women's liberation"
Black nationalism in United States, Caribbean, and emerging states of Africa
Influenced by Jamaicans, singer Bob Marley, nationalist Marcus Garvey
Martin Luther King Jr. inspired by Gandhi's nonviolent methods
The U.S. civil rights movement emerged from cold war
USSR critical of United States for treatment of African-Americans
African-Americans organized in protest of southern segregation
1954, U.S. Supreme Court ruled that segregated education was unconstitutional
Rosa Parks started boycott of Montgomery buses, led by M. L. King, 1955
Cold war consumerism
Socialist countries could not match United States in material wealth, consumer goods
Stark contrasts between economies of western and eastern Europe
Marshall Plan infused western Europe with aid, increased standard of living
The space race exemplified U.S.-Soviet competition in science and technology
Soviet gained nuclear weapons, then intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM)
Soviets launched Sputnik, first satellite, 1957
Soviet cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, first man to orbit the earth, 1961
American space program followed; John Glenn orbited, 1962
President Kennedy established NASA; United States put man on the moon, 1969
Peaceful coexistence somewhat improved after Stalin's death, 1953
Slight relaxation of censorship under Khrushchev
Both sides feared nuclear confrontation
Khrushchev visited United States in 1959, put a human face on communism
Challenges to superpower hegemony
Defiance, dissent, and intervention in Europe
France under de Gaulle
Charles de Gaulle wanted Europe free from superpower domination
French government refused to ban nuclear tests in 1963, tested bomb in 1964
Other European states not persuaded to leave U.S. protection
Tito's Yugoslavia, an independent communist state
Marshall Tito (Josip Broz) resisted Soviet control of Yugoslavia
Stalin expelled Yugoslavia from Soviet bloc, 1948
Remained nonaligned throughout cold war
De-Stalinization following death of Stalin, 1953
1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin's rule of terror
Millions of political prisoners released from work camps
Brief "thaw" in soviet culture from 1956 to 1964, easing censorship
Hungarian challenge, 1956
De-Stalinization led to pro-democracy movement in Hungary
New government announced neutrality, withdrew from Warsaw Pact
Soviet tanks crushed Hungarian uprising, 1956
Prague Spring, Czechoslovakia, 1968
Liberal movement led by Dubcek sought "socialism with a human face"
Soviet and east European forces crushed Prague liberal communism
Soviet Premier Brezhnev justified invasion by Doctrine of Limited Sovereignty
The People's Republic of China
Origins of Communist China
Civil war between nationalists and communists resumed, 1945
Outmaneuvered, the nationalists under Jiang Jieshi fled to Taiwan in 1948
Mao Zedong proclaimed People's Republic of China, 1949
Social and economic transformation of China
Political reorganization dominated by Communist Party, Chairman Mao
Suspected nationalists were executed or sent to forced labor camps
Five-Year Plan stressing heavy industry
Massive land redistribution at village level
Collective farms with basic health and primary education
Emancipation of women: divorce, abortion, footbinding finally ended
Fraternal cooperation between China and Soviet Union
Both communist; shared common enemy, the United States
Alarmed by U.S. support of Japan, south Korea, and Taiwan
Beijing accepted direction from Moscow in early 1950s
USSR gave military-economic aid, helped seat China on UN Security Council
Cracks in alliance began in late 1950s
USSR gave more economic support to noncommunist countries
Both nations openly competed for influence in Africa and Asia
Rift between the two nations was public by the end, 1964
Détente and the decline of superpower influence
Era of cooperation
Leaders of both superpowers agreed on policy of détente, late 1960s
Exchanged visits and signed agreements calling for cooperation, 1972, 1974
Concluded Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT), 1972, again 1979
Demise of détente
Full U.S.-China diplomatic relations in 1979 created U.S.-USSR strain
U.S. weapons sale to China in 1981 undermined U.S.-Soviet cooperation
1980 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan prompted U.S. economic sanctions
U.S. defeat in Vietnam
1950s, United States committed to support noncommunist government in South Vietnam
U.S. involvement escalated through 1960s
United States and allies unable to defeat North and South Vietnamese communists
President Nixon pledged in 1968 to end war with Vietnam
U.S. troops gradually withdrew; U.S. phase of war ended in 1973
North Vietnam continued war effort, unified the nation in 1976
Soviet setbacks in Afghanistan
Afghanistan had been a nonaligned nation until 1978, pro-Soviet coup
PDPA's radical reforms in 1978 prompted backlash
Islamic leaders objected to radical social change, led armed resistance
1979, rebels controlled much of Afghan countryside; USSR intervened
United States and other nations supported anti-PDPA rebels; struggle lasted nine years
1989 cease-fire negotiation by UN led to full Soviet withdrawal
Taliban forces captured Kabul and declared Afghanistan a strict Islamic state, 1996
Cold war countercultural protests in 1960s and 1970s
Cultural criticism of cold war as seen in film Dr. Strangelove, 1964
European and U.S. students agitated for peace, end to arms race, Vietnam war
Rock and roll music expressed student discontent
Watergate scandal brought down U.S. president Nixon, fed disillusionment
The end of the cold war
Revolution in east and central Europe
1980s, Ronald Reagan advocated massive military spending, opposed "evil empire"
Moscow's legacies
After World War II, Soviets had credibility for defeating Nazis
Communism unable to satisfy nationalism in eastern and central Europe
Soviet-backed governments lacked support and legitimacy
Soviet interventions in 1956 and 1968 dashed hopes of a humane socialism
Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet leader 1985-1991
1989, Gorbachev announced restructuring of USSR, withdrawal from cold war
Satellites states informed that each was on its own, without Soviet support
Rapid collapse of communist regimes across eastern and central Europe, 1989
In Poland, Solidarity leader Lech Walesa won election of 1990
Communism overthrown in Bulgaria and Hungary
Czechoslovakia's "velvet revolution" ended communism in 1990, divided into Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993
Only violent revolution was in Romania; ended with death of communist dictator
East Germany opened Berlin Wall in 1989; two Germanys were united in 1990
The collapse of the Soviet Union
Gorbachev's reforms
Gorbachev hoped for economic reform within political and economic system
Centralized economy inefficient, military spending excessive
Declining standard of living, food shortages, shoddy goods
Perestroika: "restructuring" the economy
Tried decentralizing economy, market system, profit motive
Alienated those in positions of power, military leaders
Glasnost: "openness" to public criticism, admitting past mistakes
Opened door to widespread criticism of party and government
Ethnic minorities, especially Baltic peoples, declared independence from USSR
Russian Republic, led by Boris Yeltsin, also demanded independence
Collapse of the Soviet Union, December 1991
In 1991, conservatives attempted coup; wished to restore communism
With help of loyal Red Amy units, Boris Yeltsin crushed the coup
Yeltsin dismantled Communist party, led market-oriented economic reforms
Regions of ethnic groups became independent; Soviet Union ceased to exist
Toward an uncertain future
Ideological contest of the cold war ended in 1991 after defining the world for fifty years
NATO and Warsaw Pact provided an uneasy security; now, lack of certainty
Communism remained only in Cuba and North Korea
Origins of World War II
Japan's war in China
Global conflict began with Japanese invasion of Manchuria, 1931
League of Nations condemned action; Japan simply withdrew from league
1937, Japan launched full-scale invasion of China
The Rape of Nanjing characterized war waged against civilians
Aerial bombing of Shanghai
In Nanjing, widespread rape and slaughter
Chinese resistance movement
Nationalists and communists formed "united front" against Japanese
Unable to effectively work together, they conducted guerilla attacks
Communists gained popular support throughout war
Japan's Triple Pact with Germany and Italy, 1940; neutrality pact with Soviet Union, 1941
European aggression
Italy after the Great War
Italians felt slighted at the Paris Peace Conference
Italian losses high in World War I; economy never recovered
Mussolini promised national glory, empire
Annexed Libya; invaded Ethiopia (1935-1936), killed 250,000 Ethiopians
Germany: deep resentment at Treaty of Versailles
Harsh terms: reparations, economic restrictions
Former Allies inclined not to object when Hitler violated terms of the treaty
Hitler blamed Jews, communists, liberals for losing the war and accepting the treaty
After 1933, Hitler moved to ignore terms of peace settlement
Withdrew from League of Nations, 1933
Rebuilt military, air force; reinstated draft
Took back the Rhineland, 1936, then annexed Austria, 1938
Reclaimed Sudetenland from western Czechoslovakia, 1938
At each step, France and Britain did nothing to stop him
The Munich Conference: Peace for our time?
In 1938, Germany "appeased" by taking Sudetenland, promised to stop there
Britain and France desperate to avoid war
1939, violating Munich agreement, Hitler seized most of Czechoslovakia
Russian-German Treaty of Non-Aggression, 1939, shocked the world
Total war: the world under fire
Blitzkreig: Germany conquers Europe
Strategy of a "lightening war": unannounced, surprise attacks
September 1939, Nazi invasion of Poland
Poland defeated in one month
Divided between Germany and Soviet Union
Battle of the Atlantic: German U-boats (submarines) against British ship convoys
Spring 1940, the fall of France
Nazis swiftly conquered Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Netherlands
French signed an armistice in June 1940
Italy entered the war on Nazis' side
The battle of Britain
Germans' strategy to defeat Britain solely through air attacks
Aerial bombing killed forty thousand British civilians; Royal Air Force prevented defeat
Summer 1941, Germany also controlled Balkans and North Africa
The German invasion of the Soviet Union
Operation Barbarossa: German surprise invasion of Soviet Union, June 1941
Wanted eastern land on which to resettle Germans
Captured Russian heartland; Leningrad under siege; troops outside Moscow
Blitzkrieg strategies less effective in Russia
Soviets drew on tremendous reserves: 360 Soviet divisions against 150 German
Hitler underestimated Soviet industrial capacity
Stalin quickly moved Soviet industry east to the Ural Mountains
Russian winter caught German troops ill-prepared
Battles in Asia and the Pacific
U.S. support of the Allies before Pearl Harbor
Roosevelt sold and then "loaned" arms and war material to the British
Later supplied the Soviets and the Chinese
Japanese expansion continued into southeast Asia: Indochina, 1940-1941
United States responded by freezing Japanese assets, implementing oil embargo
Demanded withdrawal from China and southeast Asia
Prime minister Tojo Hikedi developed plan of attack
7 December 1941: U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor attacked by Japanese pilots
U.S. naval power in Pacific devastated
United States declared war on Japan; Germany and Italy declared war on United States
Japanese victories after Pearl Harbor
Japan advanced swiftly in the Pacific and southeast Asia
Conquered Philippines, Dutch East Indies, Indochina, Burma, Singapore
Slogan "Asia for Asia" masked Japanese imperialism against fellow Asians
Defeat of the Axis Powers
Impact of Soviet Union and U.S. entry in 1941
Brought vital personnel and industry to Allies
German subs sank 2,452 merchants ships, but U.S. shipyards built more
Allied victories came after 1943
Russians defeated the Germans at Stalingrad, pushed them back
1944, British-U.S. troops invaded North Africa and then Italy
June 1944, British-U.S. forces invaded northern France at Normandy
Overwhelmed Germans on coast of Normandy, 6 June 1944
Round-the-clock strategic bombing by United States and Britain leveled German cities
Germans surrendered unconditionally 8 May 1945; Hitler committed suicide
Turning the tide in the Pacific
Turning point: the Battle of Midway, June 1942; United States broke Japanese code
Island-hopping strategy: moving to islands close to Japan for air attacks
Savage fighting on islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa
Japanese used suicide kamikaze pilots
Okinawan civilians refused to surrender
U.S. military was convinced that Japan would not surrender
Japanese surrender after devastating assault
U.S. firebombing raids devastated Japanese cities: in Tokyo, one hundred thousand killed
August 1945: atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed two hundred thousand
The Soviet Union declared war on Japan, 8 August
Japanese emperor surrendered unconditionally 15 August, ending WWII
Life during wartime
Occupation, collaboration, and resistance
Patterns of occupation varied
Japanese conquests: puppet governments, independent allies, or military control
German conquests: racially "superior" people given greater autonomy
In northern Europe, civilian governments under German supervision
In eastern Europe, conquered territories taken over by military
Both Japan and Germany exploited conquered states, resources, and peoples
Slave labor conscripted from conquered populations to work in factories
Labor conscripted from Poles, Soviets, Balkans, also Chinese and Koreans
Many local people accepted, even collaborated with occupying forces
In Asia, Japanese domination not much different from European domination
Others aided conquerors to gain power in new administration
Anticommunism led some in western Europe to join the Nazi SS troops
Resistance to occupation took many forms
Active resistance: sabotage, assaults, assassination
Passive resistance as well: intelligence gathering, refusing to submit
Resistance in Japan and Germany was dangerous and rare
Occupation forces responded to resistance with atrocities
Brutal reprisals to acts of resistance by both Germans and Japanese
Despite retaliation, resistance movements grew throughout the war
The Holocaust
Long history of anti-Semitism created tolerance of Nazi's anti-Jewish measures
At first Nazis encouraged Jewish emigration
Many Jews were unable to leave after Nazis took their wealth
Nazi conquest of Europe brought more Jews under their control
The "final solution"
Began with slaughter of Jews, Roma, and other undesirables in Soviet Union
By end of 1941, German special killing units had killed 1.4 million Jews
By 1942 Nazis decided to evacuate all European Jews to camps in east Poland
In Auschwitz alone at least one million Jews perished
Jewish resistance
Will to resist sapped by prolonged starvation, disease
Uprising of Warsaw ghetto, 1943: sixty thousand Jews rose up against Germans
Altogether, about 5.7 million Jews perished in the Holocaust
Women and the war
"It's a Woman's War, Too!"
Over half a million British, 350,000 American women joined auxiliary services
Soviet and Chinese women took up arms and joined resistance groups
Jewish women and girls suffered as much as men and boys
Women's social roles changed dramatically
By taking jobs or heading families, women gained independence and confidence
Changes expected to be temporary, would return to traditional role after war
"Comfort women"
Japanese armies forcibly recruited three hundred thousand women to serve in military brothels
80 percent of comfort women came from Korea
A comfort woman had to service between twenty and thirty men each day
Many were massacred by Japanese soldiers; survivors experienced deep shame
Neither peace nor war
Postwar settlements and cold war
Two strongest postwar powers, Soviet Union and United States, vied for nonaligned nations
War left millions of casualties and refugees
At least sixty million people died in WWII, highest in Soviet Union and China
Eight million Germans fled west to British, U.S. territories to escape Soviet army
Twelve million Germans and Soviet prisoners of war made their way home
Survivors of camps and three million refugees from the Balkans returned home
The origins of the cold war (1947-1990)
Unlikely alliance between Britain, Soviet Union, and United States held up for duration of war
Not without tensions: Soviet resented U.S.-British delays in European invasion
Postwar settlement established at Yalta (February 1945) and Potsdam (July--August)
Each Allied power to occupy and control territories liberated by its armed forces
Stalin agreed to support United States against Japan
Stalin's plans prevailed; Poland and east Europe became communist allies
President Truman took hard line at Potsdam, widened differences
Postwar territorial divisions reflected growing schism between United States and Soviet Union
Soviets took east Germany, while United States, Britain, and France took west Germany
Berlin also divided four ways; by 1950 division seemed permanent
Churchill spoke of an "iron curtain" across Europe, separating east and west
Similar division in Korea: Soviets occupied north and United States the south
Truman doctrine, 1947: United States would support "free peoples resisting subjugation"
Perception of world divided between so-called free and enslaved peoples
Interventionist policy, dedicated to "containment" of communism
Global reconstruction and the United Nations
The Marshall Plan, 1948: U.S. aid for the recovery of Europe
Idea to rebuild European economies and strengthen capitalism
Soviet response: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for its satellite nations
NATO and the Warsaw Pact: militarization of the cold war
1949, United States created NATO, a regional military alliance against Soviet aggression
1955, Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact in response
Two global superpowers protecting hegemony with alliances
United Nations, established 1945 to maintain international peace and security
Probing cultural frontiers
Postwar pessimism
The "lost generation"
Term used to describe pessimism of U.S. and European thinkers after the war
Postwar poetry and fiction reflected disillusionment with western culture
Scholars--Oswald Spengler, Arnold Toynbee--lamented decline of the west
Religious thought reflected uncertainty and pessimism
Karl Barth attacked liberal Christian theology embracing idea of progress
Older concepts of original sin and human depravity revived
Attacks on the ideal of progress
Science tarnished by the technological horrors of World War I
Most western societies granted suffrage to all men and women
Many intellectuals disillusioned with democracy
Conservatives decried "the rule of inferiors"
Revolutions in physics and psychology
Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, 1906
Space and time relative to the person measuring them
Implication: reality or truth merely a set of mental constructions
Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, 1927
Impossible to state the position and velocity of a subatomic particle at same time
Atomic universe indeterminate; can only speak of probabilities
Challenged long-held assumptions about truth, cause and effect
Freud's psychoanalytic theory, 1896
Sought psychological causes of mental illness
Conflict between conscious and unconscious mental processes
Sexual repression frequent cause of neuroses
Freud's ideas shaped psychiatric profession, influenced literature and arts
Experimentation in art and architecture
Modern painting: when photography can reproduce nature, why should painting?
Painters like Pablo Picasso sought freedom of expression, emotional expression
Borrowed from artistic traditions of Asia, Pacific, and Africa
No widely accepted standards of good or bad art
Modern architecture: the Bauhaus school started in Germany, 1920
An international style for twentieth-century urban buildings
Walter Gropius: form should follow function; combined engineering and art
Simple shapes, steel frames, and walls of glass
International style dominated urban landscapes well after 1930s
Global depression
The Great Depression
The weaknesses of global economy
The tangled financial relationships: Germany and Austria borrowed money from United States, used it to pay reparations to Allies, who used the money to pay war debt to United States
1928 U.S. lenders withdrew capital from Europe; financial system strained
Industrial innovations reduced demand for raw materials--rubber, coal, cotton
Postwar agriculture depressed in Europe, United States, Canada, Argentina, and Australia
The crash of 1929
U.S. economic boom prompted many to speculate, invest beyond their means
Black Thursday (24 October 1929): stock prices dropped, investors lost life savings
Lenders called in loans, forcing investors to keep selling
Economic contraction in U.S. economy and the world
Overproduction and reduced consumer demand
Widespread business failure and unemployment
By 1932 U.S. industrial production and national income dropped by half
Industrial economies felt banking crisis, unemployment
Germany and Japan unable to sell manufactured goods to purchase fuel and food
Germany by 1932: 35 percent unemployment, 50 percent decrease in industrial production
European industrial states and Japan unable to sell to United States because of tariffs
Primary producing economies especially vulnerable
Export prices declined sharply after 1929: sugar, coffee, beef, tin, nitrates, and so on
Latin American states enacted import tariffs that actually helped domestic industry
Brazil under dictator Betulio Dornelles Vargas built up steel and iron production
Impact on colonial Africa varied: exports hurt, but not local markets
China not integrated into world economy, less affected
Philippines was a U.S. colony; its sugar production protected by the United States
Economic nationalism favored over international cooperation
High tariffs, import quotas, and prohibitions to promote economic self-sufficiency
U.S. trade restrictions provoked retaliation by other nations
International trade dropped 66 percent between 1929 and 1932
Despair and government action
Government policies to reduce female employment, especially of married women
Great Depression caused enormous personal suffering
Millions struggled for food, clothing, and shelter
Marriage and birthrates declined, suicide increased
Intensified social divisions and class hatreds
John Steinbeck's Grapes of Wrath criticized U.S. policy of "planned scarcity"
Economic experimentation
John M. Keynes challenged classical economic theory
Classic theory: capitalism self-correcting, operated best if unregulated
Keynes argued the depression was a problem of inadequate demand, not supply
Governments should play active role in stimulating economy, consumer demand
The New Deal of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt anticipated Keynes's ideas
After 1932, protected banking system, massive public works, farm subsidies
Also, legislation established minimum wage, social security, workers' unions
Military spending in WWII ultimately ended the depression in United States
Challenges to the liberal order
Communism in Russia
Civil war, 1918-1920, between Bolsheviks and anticommunist forces, or the Whites
The Red Terror: secret police arrested and killed two hundred thousand suspected Whites
Bolsheviks executed Tsar Nicholas II and his entire family, June 1918
Despite some foreign support, the Whites were defeated by Red Army in 1920
Perhaps ten million died during civil war
Lenin's "war communism" transformed economy
Policy included nationalizing banks, industry, and church holdings
Private trade abolished; peasants reduced production
By 1920, industrial output at one-tenth, agricultural at half prewar levels
Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP), 1921
Reversed war communism, restored market economy
Returned small-scale industries to private ownership
Allowed peasants to sell their surplus at free market
Programs of electrification and technical schools were carried out
Lenin died, 1924; bitter power struggle followed
Joseph Stalin (1879-1953)
"Man of steel": Georgian by birth, Russian nationalist by conviction
Stalin favored "socialism in one country," not international socialism
Eliminated all rivals; by 1928, unchallenged dictator of Soviet Union
First Five-Year Plan, 1928-1932, replaced Lenin's NEP
Set production quotas, central state planning of entire economy
Emphasized heavy industry at expense of consumer goods
Collectivization of agriculture
States seized private farms, created large collective farms
Believed to be more productive, to feed industrial workers
Collectivization strongly resisted by peasants, especially the wealthier kulaks
Half of farms collectivized by 1931; three million peasants killed or starved
As an alternative to capitalism during the depression, Soviet Union offered full employment and cheap housing and food, but few luxuries or consumer goods
The Great Purge, 1935-1938
Ruthless policy of collectivization led to doubts about Stalin's administration
Stalin purged two-thirds of Central Committee members and more than half of the army's high-ranking officers
By 1939, eight million people were in labor camps; three million died during "cleansing"
The fascist alternative
Fascism: new political ideology of 1920s
Started in Italy, then Germany; also found in other countries around the world
Fascism hostile to liberal democracies and to socialism and communism
Sought subordination of individuals to the service of state
Emphasized an extreme form of nationalism, often expressed as racism
Veneration of the state, devotion to charismatic leaders
Militarism exalted, uniforms, parades
Italian fascism
Benito Mussolini, founder of Italian fascism, 1919
Armed fascist squads called Blackshirts terrorized socialists
After march on Rome, Mussolini invited by king to be prime minister
The fascist state in Italy
All other political parties banned, Italy became a one-party dictatorship
Supported by business, the party crushed labor unions, prohibited strikes
Not aggressively anti-Semitic until after alliance with Hitler in 1938
Germany's national socialism
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)
Born in Austria, schooled in Vienna; hated Jews and Marxists
Moved to Munich and fought in German army in WWI
1921, joined obscure group, National Socialist German Workers Party
The emergence of the Nazi party
1923: attempt to take over Weimar Republic failed; Hitler jailed
Released in 1924, he organized party for a legal takeover, through elections
The struggle for power after 1929
National socialism enjoyed broad appeal, especially from lower-middle class
Public lost faith in democracy: associated with defeat, depression, inflation
1930-1932, Nazi party became the largest in parliament
1932, President Hindenburg offered Hitler the chancellorship
Rapid consolidation of power, 1933-1935
Nazis created one-party dictatorship; outlawed all other political parties
Took over judiciary, civil service, military
Nazi ideology emphasized purity of race
Women praised as wives and mothers; were discouraged from working
Cult of motherhood: propaganda campaign to increase births was unsuccessful
Nazi eugenics: deliberate policies to improve the quality of the German "race"
Compulsory sterilization of undesirables: mentally ill, disabled
State-sponsored euthanasia of physically and mentally handicapped
Anti-Semitism central to Nazi ideology
1935, Nuremberg Laws deprived Jews of citizenship, outlawed intermarriage
Jews economically isolated, lost jobs, assets, businesses
1938, Kristallnacht: official attacks on synagogues and Jewish businesses
250,000 Jews fled to other countries; many others trapped
Struggles for national identity in Asia
India's quest for independence
Indian National Congress and Muslim League
After WWI, both organizations dedicated to achieving independence
Indian nationalists inspired by Wilson's fourteen Points and the Russian Revolution
Frustrated by Paris Peace settlement: no independence for colonies
British responded to nationalistic movement with repressive measures
Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948), leader of Indian nationalism
Raised as a well-to-do Hindu, studied law in London
Spent twenty-five years in South Africa, embraced tolerance and nonviolence
Developed technique of passive resistance, followed a simple life
Became political and spiritual leader, called the Mahatma ("Great Soul")
Opposed to caste system, especially the exclusion of untouchables
1920-1922, led Non-Cooperation Movement; 1930, Civil Disobedience Movement
The India Act of 1937
1919 British massacre at Amritsar killed 379 demonstrators, aroused public
Repression failed, so the British offered modified self-rule through the India Act
Unsuccessful because India's six hundred princes refused to support
Muslims would not cooperate, wanted an independent state
China's search for order
The republic, after 1911
1911 revolution did not establish a stable republic; China fell into warlords' rule
Through unequal treaties, foreign states still controlled economy of China
Growth of Chinese nationalism
Chinese intellectuals expected Paris Peace Conference to end treaty system
Instead, Paris treaties approved Japanese expansion into China
May Fourth Movement: Chinese youths and intellectuals opposed to imperialism
Some were attracted to Marxism and Leninism; CCP established in 1921
CCP (Chinese Communist Party) and Guomindang (The Nationalist Party)
CCP leader Mao Zedong advocated women's equality, socialism
Guomindang leader Sun Yat-sen favored democracy and nationalism
Two parties formed alliance, assisted by the Soviet Union, against foreigners
Civil war after death of Sun Yat-sen, 1925
Led by Jiang Jieshi, both parties launched Northern Expedition to reunify China
Successful, Jiang then turned on his communist allies
1934-1935, CCP retreated to Yan'an on the Long March, 6,215 miles
Mao emerged as the leader of CCP, developed Maoist ideology
Imperial Japan
Japan emerged from Great War as a world power
Participated in the League of Nations
Signed treaty with United States guaranteeing China's integrity
Japanese economy boosted by war: sold munitions to Allies
Prosperity short-lived; economy slumped during Great Depression
Labor unrest, demands for social reforms
Political conflict emerged between internationalists, supporters of western-style capitalism, and nationalists, hostile to foreign influences
The Mukden incident, 1931, in Manchuria
Chinese unification threatened Japanese interests in Manchuria
Japanese troops destroyed tracks on Japanese railroad, claimed Chinese attack
Incident became pretext for Japanese attack against China
Military, acting without civilian authority, took all Manchuria by 1932
The drift toward war
Nationalist aspirations
Nationalism spread by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars
Self-determination suggested that each ethnic group had a right to a sovereign state
Concept was ignored or opposed by dynastic powers
Considerable nationalistic tensions in Ottoman, Hapsburg, and Russian empires
Slavic nationalism: stressed kinship of all Slavic peoples
Ottoman empire shrank as first Greece, then others, gained independence
Serbs of Austria-Hungary sought unification with independent Serbia
Russians promoted Pan-Slavism in Austria-Hungarian empire
Germany backed Austria-Hungary to fight ethnic nationalism
National rivalries
The naval race between Germany and Britain increased tensions
Germany's rapid industrialization threatened British economic predominance
Both states built huge iron battleships, called dreadnoughts
Colonial disputes of the late nineteenth century
Germany unified in 1871; came late to the colonial race
German resentment and antagonism toward both France and Britain
France and Germany nearly fought over Morocco in 1905
Balkan wars (1912-13) further strained European diplomatic relations
Public opinion supported national rivalries
Attitudes of aggressive patriotism among European citizens
Leaders under pressure to be aggressive, to take risks
Understandings and alliances
Rival systems of alliance obligated allies to come to one another's defense
The Central Powers
Germany and Austria-Hungary formed a Dual Alliance 1879
In fear of France, Italy joined the Dual Alliance in 1882, thus, the Triple Alliance
Ottoman empire loosely affiliated with Germany
The Allies
Britain, France, and Russia formed the Triple Entente, or the Allies
Shifting series of treaties ended with a military pact, 1914
War plans: each power poised and prepared for war
Military leaders devised inflexible military plans and timetables
France's Plan XVII focused on offensive maneuvers and attacks
Germany's Schlieffen plan: swift attack on France, then defensive against Russia
Global war
The guns of August: triggered a chain reaction
June 1914, Austrian Archduke assassinated by Serbian nationalist
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, July 28
Russia mobilized troops to defend its Serbian ally against the Central Powers
Germany: July 31, sent ultimatums to Russia and France, which were ignored
Germany declared war on Russia and France, invaded Belgium to reach France
August 4: to protect Belgium's neutrality, Britain declared war on Germany
Mutual butchery
War was greeted with enthusiasm on all sides; was expected to be brief
The western front
German invasion of France halted along the river Marne for three years
Trenches on the western front ran from the English Channel to Switzerland
Italy entered war with Allies, maintained defensive line against Austria-Hungary
Stalemate and new weapons
New technologies favored defensive tactics over offensive tactics
Poisonous gas: introduced by Germans, used by both sides
Eight hundred thousand casualties from mustard gas
Armored tanks used to break down trenches toward end of the war
Airplanes used mainly for reconnaissance
Submarines used especially by Germans against Allied shipping
No-man's-land littered with dead, the grim reality of trench warfare
On the eastern front, battle lines more fluid
Austrian-German forces overran Serbia, Albania, and Romania
Russia invaded Prussia 1915, but was soon driven out
Russians' counterattacks in 1916-1917 collapsed in a sea of casualties
Bloodletting: long, costly battles
At Verdun: French "victory" with 315,000 dead, defeated Germans lost 280,000
At the Somme, Britain and Germany saw losses of 420,000 each
New rules of engagement
Civilians became targets of enemy military operations
Air raids against civilians; naval blockades common
Total war: the home front
On the home front: the economy mobilized to the war effort
Governments militarized civilian war production
Imposed wage and price controls
Extended military draft in Germany from ages sixteen to sixty
Women served the war by entering the workforce
Took over jobs vacated by soldiers
Did hazardous work with explosives, shells, TNT
A liberating experience, especially for middle- and upper-class women
Women granted the vote in western nations after the war
Propaganda campaigns to maintain national support for the war
Included censorship and restrictions on civil liberties
Criticism of the war regarded as treasonous
Propaganda designed to dehumanize the enemy
Conflict in east Asia and the Pacific
Expansion of the war beyond Europe
European animosities extended to the colonies
British and French forces recruited colonials into their armies
Eventually, Japan, United States, Ottoman empire entered the war
Japan entered war with the Allies, 1814
Seized German-leased territory in China
New Zealand and Australia likewise seized German-held lands in the Pacific
The Twenty-One Demands
Japan advanced its imperial interests in China
The Twenty-One Demands were designed to reduce China to Japanese protectorate
Britain intervened, prevented total capitulation of China to Japan
Battles in Africa and southwest Asia
The war in sub-Saharan Africa
Allies targeted the four German colonies in Africa
Togoland fell quickly, but not the others
Many Allied soldiers and workers died from tropical diseases
Battle of Gallipoli, 1915, in Ottoman Turkey
British decided to strike at the weakest Central Power, the Ottomans
Battle of Gallipoli a disaster, with 250,000 casualties on each side
Weakened ties of loyalty between Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Britain
The Ottoman empire lost ground after Gallipoli
Lost Caucasus to Russians
Successful Arab revolt aided by British
The end of the war
Revolution in Russia
February Revolution of 1917: uprising against shortages, mounting deaths in the war
Facing mutinies, Nicholas II abdicated throne
Provisional government established
Struggle for power between provisional government and Petrograd soviet
New government passed many liberal reforms
Did not undertake land reform, did not withdraw from the war
V. I. Lenin (1870-1924) stepped into unstable situation
A revolutionary Marxist, exiled in Switzerland
Saw importance of a well-organized, disciplined party for revolution
German authorities delivered Lenin to Russia, 1917, to take Russia out of war
Headed radical Bolshevik Party: demanded power to soviets, withdrawal from war
The October Revolution
Minority Bolsheviks gained control of Petrograd soviet
Bolsheviks' slogan "Peace, Land, and Bread" appealed to workers and peasants
Armed force seized power from provisional government in name of all soviets
Russia withdrew from war, made a separate peace with Germany, lost one-third of Ukraine
U.S. intervention and collapse of the Central Powers
1914-1916, United States under President Woodrow Wilson officially neutral
American public opposed participation in a European war
U.S. companies sold supplies, gave loans to Allies
By 1917, Allied ability to repay loans depended on Allied victory
The submarine warfare helped sway American public opinion
German blockade sank merchant ships, intended to strangle Britain
1915, Germans sank Lusitania, a British passenger liner, killing 1,198 passengers
United Stattes declared war on Germany, 6 April 1917
Collapsing fronts after years of bloodletting
April 1916, Irish nationalists attempted to overthrow British rule
Central Powers: shortages, food riots, mutinies
1917, mutiny of fifty thousand French soldiers
Spring 1918, massive Germany offensive on western front failed
With fresh American troops, Allies broke the front and pushed the Germans back
Central Powers collapsed, one after another; accepted armistices November 1918
The Paris Peace Conference, 1919
In the end, the Great War killed fifteen million people, wounded twenty million
The Paris settlement was dominated by heads of Britain, France, and United States
Twenty-seven nations with conflicting aims participated
Leaders of Central Powers and Soviet Union not included
Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points: proposal for a just and lasting peace
Included free trade, arms treaties, rights for colonials, an association of nations
Most of the program rejected by Allies; Central Powers felt betrayed
The Peace Treaties, 1919
French insisted on destroying German military
Central Powers forced to accept war guilt and pay reparations for cost of war
Austria and Hungary were separated and reduced; the new states were added to eastern Europe
Overall, the peace settlement was a failure; left a bitter legacy
Ataturk: Mustafa Kemal, father of modern Turkey
1923, drove out occupying Allied forces, proclaimed Republic of Turkey
Implemented reforms: emancipation of women, western dress, European law
Secular rule replaced Muslim authorities
Constitutional democracy, although Ataturk ruled as virtual dictator until 1938
The League of Nations created to maintain world peace
Forty-two members, twenty-six of them outside Europe
The league had no power to enforce its decisions
Collective security depended on all major powers, but United States never joined
Self-determination for ethnic nationalities: urged by Wilson at Paris Conference
Basis for redrawing map of eastern Europe: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia
Difficult to draw lines: German minorities left in Poland and Czechoslovakia
Yugoslavia: land of southern Slaves, uneasy mix of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes
The mandate system
United States opposed direct colonization; Allies proposed system of trusteeships
Colonies of Central Powers divided into three classes of mandates
Allies divided up Germany's African colonies, Ottoman territories in southwest Asia
Arabs outraged at betrayal by their British allies
Challenges to European preeminence
Great War weakened Europe, set the stage for decolonization after World War II
Economic crises: inflation, debt, loss of overseas investments, foreign markets
Economic relationship between Europe and United States reversed; United States now creditor
Loss of prestige overseas weakened European grip on colonies
Revolutionary ideas
The war helped spread concept of self-determination
Nationalist movements also sought inspiration from the Soviet Union
Foundations of empire
Motives of imperialism
Modern imperialism
Refers to domination of industrialized countries over subject lands
Domination achieved through trade, investment, and business activities
Two types of modern colonialism
Colonies ruled and populated by migrants
Colonies controlled by imperial powers without significant settlement
Economic motives of imperialism
European merchants and entrepreneurs made personal fortunes
Overseas expansion for raw materials: rubber, tin, copper, petroleum
Colonies were potential markets for industrial products
Political motives
Strategic purpose: harbors and supply stations for industrial nations
Overseas expansion used to defuse internal tensions
Cultural justifications of imperialism
Christian missionaries sought converts in Africa and Asia
"Civilizing mission" or "white man's burden" was a justification for expansion
Tools of empire
Transportation technologies supported imperialism
Steam-powered gunboats reached inland waters of Africa and Asia
Railroads organized local economies to serve imperial power
Western military technologies increasingly powerful
Firearms: from muskets to rifles to machines guns
In Battle of Omdurman 1898, British troops killed eleven thousand Sudanese in five hours
Communication technologies linked imperial lands with colonies
Oceangoing steamships cut travel time from Britain to India from years to weeks
Telegraph invented in 1830s, global reach by 1900
European imperialism
The British empire in India
Company rule under the English East India Company
EIC took advantage of Mughal decline in India, began conquest of India in 1750s
Built trading cities and forts at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay
Ruled domains with small British force and Indian troops called sepoys
Sepoy mutiny, 1857: attacks on British civilians led to swift British reprisals
British imperial rule replaced the EIC, 1858
British viceroy and high-level British civil service ruled India
British officials appointed a viceroy and formulated all domestic and foreign policy
Indians held low-level bureaucratic positions
Economic restructuring of India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
Introduction of commercial crops: tea in Ceylon, also coffee and opium
Built railroads and telegraph lines, new canals, harbors, and irrigation methods
British rule did not interfere with Indian culture or Hindu religion
Established English-style schools for Indian elites
Outlawed Indian customs considered offensive, such as the sati
Imperialism in central Asia and southeast Asia
"The Great Game" refers to competition between Britain and Russia in central Asia
By 1860s Russian expansion reached northern frontiers of British India
Russian and British explorers mapped, scouted, but never colonized Afghanistan
Russian dominance of central Asia lasted until 1991
Dutch East India Company held tight control of Indonesia (Dutch East India)
British colonies in southeast Asia
Established colonial authority in Burma, 1880s
Port of Singapore founded 1824; was base for conquest of Malaya, 1870s
French Indochina created, 1859-1893
Consisted of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos--former tribute states of Qing dynasty
French encouraged conversion to Christianity, established western-style schools
Kingdom of Siam (Thailand) left in place as buffer between Burma and Indochina
The scramble for Africa
Between 1875 and 1900, European powers seized almost the entire continent
Early explorers charted the waters, gathered information on resources
Missionaries like David Livingstone set up mission posts
Henry Stanley sent by Leopold II of Belgium to create colony in Congo, 1870s
To protect their investments and Suez Canal, Britain occupied Egypt, 1882
South Africa settled first by Dutch farmers (Afrikaners) in seventeenth century
By 1800 was a European settler colony with enslaved black African population
British seized Cape Colony in early nineteenth century, abolished slavery in 1833
British-Dutch tensions led to Great Trek of Afrikaners inland to claim new lands
Mid-nineteenth century, they established Orange Free State in 1854, Transvaal in 1860
Discovery of gold and diamonds in Afrikaner lands; influx of British settlers
Boer War, 1899-1902: British defeated Afrikaners, Union of South Africa
The Berlin Conference, 1884-1885
European powers set rules for carving Africa into colonies
Occupation, supported by European armies, established colonial rule in Africa
By 1900 all of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was controlled by European powers
Colonial rule challenging and expensive
"Concessionary companies": granted considerable authority to private companies
empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads
made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian Congo
unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule
Direct rule: replacing local rulers with Europeans--French model
justified by "civilizing mission"
hard to find enough European personnel
Indirect rule: control over subjects through local institutions--British model
worked best in African societies that were highly organized
assumed firm tribal boundaries where often none existed
European imperialism in the Pacific
Settler colonies in the Pacific
1770, Captain James Cook reached Australia, reported it suitable for settlement
1788, one thousand settlers established colony of New South Wales
1851, gold discovered; surge of European migration to Australia
Fertile soil and timber of New Zealand attracted European settlers
Europeans diseases dramatically reduced aboriginal populations
Large settler societies forced indigenous peoples onto marginal lands
Imperialists in paradise: delayed colonization of Pacific Islands until late nineteenth century
Early visitors to the Pacific were mostly whalers, merchants, some missionaries
Late nineteenth century, European states sought coaling stations and naval ports
By 1900, all islands but Tonga claimed by France, Britain, Germany and United States.
Island plantations produced sugarcane, copra, guano
The emergence of new imperial powers
U.S. imperialism in Latin America and the Pacific
The Monroe Doctrine, 1823: proclamation by U.S. president James Monroe
Opposed European imperialism in the Americas; justified U.S. intervention
United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867
Hawaii became a protectorate in 1875, formally annexed in 1898
The Spanish-American War (1898-99)
United States defeated Spain and took over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Philippines
United States backed Filipino revolt against Spain, purchased and took over the colony
1902-1904, bitter civil war killed two hundred thousand Filipinos, ended in U.S. victory
The Panama Canal, 1903-1914
Colombian government refused U.S. request to build canal at Panama isthmus
United States helped rebels establish the state of Panama for the right to build a canal
Completed in 1914; gave United States access to Atlantic and Pacific
Imperial Japan
Japanese resented unequal treaties of 1860s, resolved to become imperial power
Early Japanese expansion in nearby islands
1870s, to the north: Hokkaido, Kurile islands
By 1879, to the south: Okinawa and Ryukyu Islands
Meiji government bought British warships, built up navy, established military academies
1876, imposed unequal treaties on Korea at gunpoint
Made plans to invade China
The Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)
Rebellion in Korea: Chinese army sent to restore order, reassert authority
Meiji leaders declared war against China, demolished Chinese fleet
China forced to cede Korea, Taiwan, Pescadores Islands, Liaodong peninsula
The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
Russia also had territorial ambitions in Liaodong peninsula, Korea, Manchuria
Japanese navy destroyed local Russian forces; Baltic fleet sent as reinforcements
Japan now a major imperial power
Legacies of imperialism
Empire and economy: two patterns of changes
Colonial rule transformed traditional production of crops and commodities
Indian cotton grown to serve British textile industry
Inexpensive imported textiles undermined Indian production
New crops transformed landscape and society
Rain forests of Ceylon converted to tea plantations
Ceylonese women recruited to harvest tea
Rubber plantations transformed Malaya and Sumatra
Labor migrations
European migration
Fifty million Europeans migrated 1800-1914, over half to the United States
Other settler colonies in Canada, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
Most European migrants became cultivators, herders, or skilled laborers
Indentured labor migration more typical from Asia, Africa, and Pacific islands
About 2.5 million indentured laborers globally during 1820-1914
Indentured migrants tended to work on tropical and subtropical plantations
Example: Indian laborers to Pacific island and Caribbean plantations
Japanese laborers to Hawaiian sugar plantations
Large-scale migrations reflected global influence of imperialism
Empire and society
Colonial conflict not uncommon in nineteenth century
In India, numerous insurrections, such as the sepoy rebellion of 1857
1905, Maji Maji rebellion in east Africa thought traditional magic would defeat the Germans
Resistance included boycotts, political parties, anticolonial publications
Conflict among different groups united under colonial rule, for example, Hawaii
"Scientific racism" popular in nineteenth century
Race became the measure of human potential; Europeans considered superior
Gobineau divided humanity into four main racial groups, each with peculiar traits
Social Darwinism: "survival of fittest" used to justify European domination
Colonial experience only reinforced popular racism
Assumed moral superiority of Europeans
Racist views in U.S. treatment of Filipinos, Japanese treatment of Koreans
Nationalism and anticolonial movements
Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), "father of modern India"
Sought an Indian society based on European science and traditional Hinduism
Used press to mobilize educated Hindus and advance reform
The Indian National Congress, founded 1885
Educated Indians met, with British approval, to discuss public affairs
Congress aired grievances about colonial rule, sought Indian self-rule
1906, All-India Muslim League formed to advance interests of Indian Muslims
Limited reform, 1909; wealthy Indians could elect representatives to local councils
Indian nationalism a powerful movement, achieved independence in 1947
India served as a model for anticolonial campaigns in other lands